Sparrows (Passerellidae) – LIFE IN THE LOWER SUSQUEHANNA RIVER WATERSHED

November 21, 2025November 21, 2025

Back in the Day: Down on the Farm

Let us travel through time for just a little while to recall those sunny, late-spring days down on the farm—back when the rural landscape was a quiet, semi-secluded realm with little in the way of traffic, housing projects, or industrialized agriculture. Those among us who grew up on one of these family homesteads, or had friends who did, remember the joy of exploring the meadows, thickets, soggy springs, and woodlots they protected.

Low-intensity Farming — During much of the twentieth century, low-intensity agriculture provided a haven for wildlife. Periodic disturbances helped maintain cool-season grassland and early successional habitat for a number of species we currently find in decline.

For many of us, farmland was the first place we encountered and began to understand wildlife. Vast acreage provided an abundance of space to explore. And the discovery of each new creature provided an exciting experience.

Ned Smith's Birds of Field and Garden — Distributed by the Pennsylvania Game Commission, artist Ned Smith’s wildlife posters introduced many residents of the lower Susquehanna region to its birds and mammals. This poster of “Birds of Field and Garden” helped us learn what to expect and search for during our forays to the farm.

Today, high-intensity agriculture, relentless mowing, urban sprawl, and the increasing costs and demand for land have all conspired to seriously deplete habitat quality and quantity for many of the species we used to see on the local farm. Unfortunately for them, farm wildlife has largely been the victim of modern economics.

For old time’s sake, we recently passed a nostalgic afternoon at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area examining what maintenance of traditional farm habitat has done and can do for breeding birds. Join us for a quick tour to remember how it used to be at the farm next door…

Always found nesting under the forebay of the barn, the Barn Swallow relentlessly pursued flying insects over the pond and meadow.

Eastern Meadowlarks arrived during March and April to begin nesting in their namesake. Their song, “spring-of-the-year”, heralded the new season.

Arriving in meadows and pastures during early May, the Eastern Kingbird provided for its nestlings by ambushing a variety of flying insects. By August, congregations of these birds could be found gathering along ponds and streams ahead of their fall migration.

In the cherry grove down by the creek, the Orchard Oriole would be singing incessantly to defend its territory.

Normally seed eaters through the colder months, American Goldfinches would regularly find a source of protein in the occupants of Eastern Tent Caterpillar nests.

Along the wet margins of the creek, Yellow Warblers would nest in the shrubs and small trees.

The “Traill’s Flycatcher” was a familiar find in low-lying areas of successional shrubs and small trees. Today, “Traill’s Flycatcher” is recognized as two distinct species, the Alder Flycatcher (Empidonax alnorum) and the Willow Flycatcher. In the lower Susquehanna valley, the latter (seen here) is by far the most common of the two.

During the nineteenth century, Eastern Bluebirds became a rarity on lower Susquehanna farms due to a combination of factors: pesticide (DDT) use, habitat loss, and competition with other birds for nest sites. The species saw a resurgence beginning in the 1970s with discontinuation of DDT applications and widespread provision of nesting boxes. Around human habitations, competition with invasive House Sparrows continues to be detrimental to their success.

Purple Martins and Tree Swallows — Purple Martins suffered a similar fate to the bluebirds. The potential for their recovery remains dubious and they continue to be very local breeders, fussy about selection of suitable man-made provisions for nesting. After considerable effort, Purple Martins have at last been attracted to nest in the condos placed for their use at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area. In the artificial gourds, there are nesting Tree Swallows, a species which also benefits from the placement of boxes intended for bluebirds.

Abandoned fields and other successional habitats were and continue to be favored homes for Field Sparrows.

At almost any time of year, roving bands of Cedar Waxwings would suddenly visit old field habitat looking for berries among the shrubs and other pioneering woody growth. In early summer, after most species have already hatched their young, nesting would commence and these fruit eaters would transform into accomplished fly catchers.

During the twentieth century prior to the 1980s, Ring-necked Pheasant populations in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed were comprised of breeding descendants of introduced birds supplemented by additional releases to maintain numbers sufficient for hunting. Year-round populations did and can reside in mosaic landscapes of early successional and grassland habitats, the latter including hay fields left unmowed through the nesting season.

Red-winged Blackbirds have always been a fixture of hay fields and meadows on farms. While the increase in mowing frequency has reduced their nesting success, they have persevered as a species by nesting earlier than other birds and by utilizing other landscape features such as densely vegetated stormwater basins for breeding sites.

Do you recall the last time you saw a Bobolink nesting in a hay field near you? Arriving in early May as a Neotropical migrant, the Bobolink requires a cool-season grassland such as hay field through at least July to complete its nesting cycle. Even earlier this century, we remember nesting Bobolinks being more widespread on farms throughout the region. Now, you almost have to go to Middle Creek if you want to see them.

Formerly more widespread in hay fields throughout the lower Susquehanna valley, the native Grasshopper Sparrow is yet another species falling victim to early mowing and intensive farming.

Cool-season Grasses — **Beautiful cool-season grasses waving in the spring breeze.** Meadows and hay fields can be managed to function as cool-season grasslands to provide nesting opportunities for many of the species we used to find down on the farm.

May 13, 2025May 13, 2025

Nest Builders at Work

For many animals, an adequate shelter is paramount for their successful reproduction. Here’s a sample of some of the lower Susquehanna valley’s nest builders in action…

Pileated Woodpecker Excavating Nest — Many of our year-round resident bird species get a head start on the breeding season as cavity nesters. Some of these mated pairs use naturally occurring hollows, while still others take advantage of the voids left vacant by the more industrious previous occupants. Woodpeckers in particular are responsible for excavating many of the cavities that are later used as homes by a variety of birds and mammals to both rear their young and provide winter shelter. Pileated Woodpeckers, like other members of the family Picidae, have an almost mystic ability to locate diseased or insect-infested trees for selection as feeding and nesting sites. In this composite image, a pair is seen already working on a potential nursery during mid-January. After use by the woodpeckers, abandoned cavities of this size can become nesting sites for a variety of animals including bees, small owls, Great Crested Flycatchers, Wood Ducks, Hooded Mergansers, and squirrels.

Downy Woodpecker at Nest — After use as a nesting site, a void excavated by Downy Woodpeckers can be occupied in subsequent years by chickadees, titmice, nuthatches, wrens, and other cavity-dwelling species.

Muskrat with Leafy Twig — This Muskrat (*Ondatra zibethicus)* with a leafy twig in tow takes advantage of spring’s new growth to construct or repair its house,…

Muskrat House — A Muskrat house in March. In the absence of leafy twigs, dried cattail stems will suffice. As it ages and decays, the house’s organic matter generates heat and makes an ideal location for turtles to deposit and hatch their eggs.

Soon after Neotropical migrants begin arriving in the forests of the lower Susquehanna watershed, they begin constructing their nests. The majority of these species build “outdoors”, not within the confines of a tree cavity. Here we see a Wood Thrush with its bill full of dried leaves and other materials…

Wood Thrush Nest — …ready to line the cup of its nest in the fork of a small understory tree.

Though it often arrives during early April after spending the winter in sub-tropical and even some temperate climes, the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher must wait to start construction of its nest until many of the Neotropical migrants arrive in early May.

Blue-gray Gnatcatchers — Back at the nest site…

Baltimore Oriole with Nesting Material — Baltimore Orioles weave one the most unique nests of any species occurring in eastern North America.

Baltimore Oriole Nest — Unfortunately for them, man-made litter can often seem to be the ideal material for binding the nest together. In an area only sporadically visited by anglers, this oriole had no trouble finding lots of monofilament fishing line, trash that can fatally entangle both adult and young birds of any species. If you see any fishing line at all, please pick it up and dispose of it properly.

Baltimore Oriole — Always keep an eye open for fishing line and get it before the birds do!

Like many other avians, male Brown-headed Cowbirds are now relentlessly pursuing females of their kind.

Watching and waiting. The Indigo Bunting evades cowbird parasitism by first recognizing the invader’s egg. They then either add a new layer of nest lining over it or they abandon the nest completely and construct a new one. Some patient buntings may delay their breeding cycle until after cowbird courting behavior ceases in coming weeks.

May 2, 2025May 3, 2025

Fresh Foliage and Plumes

Despite what seemed to be a chilly early spring, the bright green leaves that unfold to close the canopy of our deciduous forests were dense and casting shade by the last days of April. For northbound migrants, this fresh foliage provides the cover they need for foraging, resting, and, for those that will stick around to breed in the lower Susquehanna valley, nesting.

We recall many occasions when sparse foliage during the first days of May seemed to delay the big push of Neotropical species, but the seasonal arrival of these birds in 2025 is thus far mostly ahead of schedule. This absence of delay is due in part to the lushness of the oaks. Some stands have not only leafed out, but are finished flowering and have added up to 12 inches of new branch growth. We spent these early hours of May among the oaks. Here’s a look at the Neotropical migrants and other species we found…

Dozens of species of Neotropical warblers have arrived in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed. Some will nest locally while others will continue along flight paths that will ultimately take them far to our north. We spotted this Cape May Warbler in the upper reaches of a Northern Red Oak feeding among its spent flowers. Its destination: the spruce forests of northern New England and Canada.

Slightly larger than the warblers are the vireos, including this Yellow-throated Vireo that has arrived to nest in an oak-maple bottomland.

This young Red-tailed Hawk has survived its first winter. It appears to have learned from experience how to hunt from advantageous locations such as this Chestnut Oak along a utility right-of-way where prey may include numerous squirrels as well as mice and other small mammals.

We were taking a break beneath this Pin Oak when suddenly an American Kestrel arrived to begin scolding a trespasser that was straying a bit too close to its nest;…

…the intruder, a Northern Harrier, soon took the hint and continued on its way.

While among the oaks, it pays to check the understory where Neotropical thrushes including the Veery are arriving to fill the forests with their melodious songs.

Following their nocturnal flights, the last of the season’s northbound White-throated Sparrows may presently be found spending the day in the cover of the oak woodland understory.

The movements of our migratory birds typically continue through much of the month of May. And peak numbers of Neotropical species often occur sometime during the second week of the month. But with habitat at the ready, favorable flight conditions could facilitate quick arrival and/or passage of the bulk of the remaining migrants during the coming week. You may want to venture out sooner rather than later—but watch your step!

The Mayapple, a native wildflower also known as the Mandrake, is now in bloom among the oak leaf litter.

And the Canada Mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), a native species also known as Wild Lily-of-the-valley, is blooming in moist mixed-oak forests.

At the edge of an oak-maple woodland, we found this lingering White-crowned Sparrow foraging among the leaf litter and fresh, shiny foliage of Poison Ivy. Songbirds can spend their days scratching the ground among these leaves of three. If you do it, you’ll be scratching something else, and you may need an ocean of calamine lotion to boot!

March 24, 2025March 24, 2025

Wildlife in the Burn Zone

During Saturday’s Prescribed Fire Demonstration at the Pennsylvania Game Commission’s Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area, we noticed just how fast some species of wildlife return to areas subjected to burns administered to maintain grassland habitat and reduce the risk of high-intensity blazes.

Back Fire Ignition during prescribed burn demonstration. — Pennsylvania Game Commission crews ignite a back fire to contain a prescribed burn along its downwind/upslope perimeter during a demonstration at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area on Saturday.

Dozens of recently arrived Tree Swallows swept in to patrol for flying insects as the burn was in progress.

These three Eastern Meadowlarks spent the morning in the grassland areas adjacent to the prescribed fire site, mostly where a burn had been conducted one week prior. During the demonstration, one even perched and sang from the oak trees in the museum/visitor’s center parking lot.

Following the Prescribed Fire Demonstration, we decided to pay a visit to some of the parcels where burns had been administered one week earlier on the north side of Middle Creek’s main impoundment. We found a surprising amount of activity.

White-crowned and White-throated Sparrows — Apparently feeding upon slightly heat-treated seeds, sparrows were found by the dozens. White-crowned (left), White-throated (right), Song, and Savannah Sparrows were identified.

This Downy Woodpecker was finding something to its liking among the scorched leaves, stems, and twigs.

American Robins seem to find areas with lightly burnt vegetation and ash-dusted soil advantageous for finding invertebrates following a fire.

Mixed Flock of Blackbirds — We found this flock of Red-winged Blackbirds, Browned-headed Cowbirds, and a few European Starlings feeding throughout a grassland field cleared of early-successional growth by a prescribed fire administered one week ago.

American Kestrel at Nest Box — A male American Kestrel at a nest box located among Middle Creek’s warm-season and cool-season grassland habitats, the former maintained by prescribed fire, the latter by delayed mowing.

February 26, 2025August 4, 2025

Winter Survival: Generalists and Specialists

We’ve seen worse, but this winter has been particularly tough for birds and mammals in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed. Due to the dry conditions of late summer and fall in 2024, the wild food crop of seeds, nuts, berries, and other fare has been less than average. The cold temperatures make insects hard to come by. Let’s have a look at how some of our local generalist and specialist species are faring this winter.

House Sparrows and a House Finch — House Sparrows (bottom) and House Finches (top) are generalists. To survive and thrive, they are adapted to a variety of habitats and types of food. House Sparrows live almost anywhere man-made structures are found. They are true omnivores and will eat almost anything, especially if they see something else try to eat it first. The House Sparrow’s close association with humans has allowed it to become the most widespread and successful living avian dinosaur. On a cold night, they’ll take shelter either within dense vegetation alongside a building or within the structure itself. Though not nearly as cosmopolitan, the House Finch has successfully colonized much of the eastern United States after escaping from captivity as a cage bird in New York during the middle of the twentieth century. Upon being trans-located here from the arid southwest, they adapted to suburbs and farmlands consuming primarily a granivore diet of seeds supplemented with seasonally available berries. They quickly became accustomed to offerings at bird-feeding stations as well. To survive the harsh winters in the northern sections of their range, eastern populations of House Finches are developing a pattern of migration. These movements are most evident in late fall when dozens or sometimes hundreds can be seen heading south over regional hawk-counting stations.

Northern Flicker feeding on Poison Ivy — Though they require dead trees for nesting and as places to find the grubs and adult insects upon which they primarily feed, woodpeckers including the Northern Flicker are generalists, seldom passing by a supply of fruits like these Poison Ivy berries as a source of winter food. Flickers regularly visit suburban areas where they’ll drop by at bird-feeding stations for suet. During the warmer months, they are the woodpecker most frequently seen on the ground where swarms of ants garner their full attention.

The Pileated Woodpecker is seldom found outside of mature forests where it digs relentlessly to remove grubs and other infestations from dead wood. But it is not a true specialist…

Pileated Woodpecker eating Poison Ivy — …it too finds a supply of Poison Ivy berries to be indispensable during a cold winter day.

The Ruby-crowned Kinglet is a generalist, feeding mostly on insects, but also consuming small seeds and some berries, including those of Poison Ivy. It nests well to our north in tall spruces and other evergreens. During migration and in winter, the Ruby-crowned Kinglet may be found in deciduous trees, brush, and tall grass in habitats ranging from forests to parks and suburbia. This male is displaying its seldom-seen red crown.

The Golden-crowned Kinglet, seen here on a Poison Ivy vine, is more of a specialist than the Ruby-crowned species, though the two will often occur in mixed groups during the winter. The Golden-crowned Kinglet nests in Spruce-Fir forests and in conifers within mixed woodlands. Even during migration, and particularly in winter, these birds are seldom found far from a stand of large evergreens within which they find shelter for the night.

The Hermit Thrush’s generalist lifestyle allows it to survive cold season weather in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed. During summer, it breeds in coniferous and mixed woods from the northern parts of our valley north into Canada and feeds primarily on worms, insects, and other arthropods. During migration and in winter, the Hermit Thrush becomes a regular visitor to deciduous forests, woody parks and suburbs, particularly where a supply of wild berries is available to supplement its diet.

Iconic as it pulls earthworms from lawns during the warmer months, the generalist American Robin is fully dependent upon a crop of berries to survive winter conditions in the lower Susquehanna valley. The drought afflicted wild food crop of 2024 has led to fewer robins spending the season here and has delayed the northward push of migrating birds until the ground thaws and the earthworms make the ground rumble once again.

American Crows are an excellent example of a generalist species. They’ll go anywhere to find food and they’ll eat almost anything. Like the House Sparrow and several other generalists, they adapt very well to human activity and actually thrive on it. Garbage anyone?

Another career generalist is the widely worshiped White-tailed Deity, a species adapted to nearly all man-made landscapes with adequate vegetation upon which to browse. Pushed to the limit during severe weather, some individuals will consume carrion and even resort to cannibalism.

You might think the Great Blue Heron is a specialist. Nope, it’s an accomplished generalist. Great blues will live, feed, and breed on almost any body of fresh or brackish water. And their diet includes almost anything that swims. In winter, you’ll even see them in fields hunting mice and voles.

The Red-shouldered Hawk is a generalist with a diet ranging from amphibians and reptiles to small rodents and large insects. Mostly regarded as a species of bottomlands, they’ll frequent woodland edges, roadsides, and suburbia during the winter months.

During its periodic winter visits to the region, the American Tree Sparrow feeds on seeds among the grasses and forbs of semi-open country with scattered short shrubs and trees. A generalist species, it will show up at backyard bird-feeding stations, particularly during periods of inclement weather. In summer, the American Tree Sparrow nests in tundra with growths of stunted willows and spruce and their diet includes insects as a source of protein for themselves and their young.

White-crowned Sparrows — …it becomes adaptable and something of a generalist when searching for food during bad winter storms.

The Savannah Sparrow is an omnivore favoring insects in summer and seeds in winter. Though very closely tied to its grassland habitat year-round, snow cover can push these birds to enter woodier environs to consume fruits like these rose hips.

Dusk and dawn during the short days of winter are the prime hunting times of a mammal specialist, the Short-eared Owl. Its presence in the lower Susquehanna valley is dependent on two dominant factors: extensive grassland habitat and an adequate population of the owl’s favored food, the Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). The Short-eared Owl’s requirements as a specialist species make finding a suitable place to live difficult. Unlike the generalist birds and mammals that often adapt to the widespread man-made disturbances in the region, populations of specialists frequently become fragmented, reduced in abundance, and subject to extirpation.

The Meadow Vole is a generalist rodent that can be abundant in grasslands, early successional growth, fallow fields, marshlands, and, of course, meadows. They are primarily herbivores, but will occasionally consume insects and other arthropods. Usually nocturnal, some individuals venture out along their surface runways during daylight hours becoming vulnerable to diurnal raptors including kestrels, harriers, and buteos.

Short-eared Owl patrolling a grassland for Meadow Voles — A Short-eared Owl in near darkness patrolling a grassland for Meadow Voles.

The eastward expansion of the Coyote (Canis latrans), a species of western North America’s grasslands and scrublands, and its progressive mixing with the Wolf (Canis lupus) in these eastern extensions of its range, has produced an expanding population of very adaptable generalists we call Eastern Coyotes (Canis latrans var.). These omnivorous canines colonized the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed during the last four decades to replace extirpated wolves as the top-tier natural predator in the region. Their primary diet includes Meadow Voles in grasslands and other small mammals along woodland edges and in successional habitats. Seasonally, they consume the berries of numerous wild plants. Slightly larger than their western ancestors, Eastern Coyotes with the admixture of Wolf genetics can subdue small ungulates. Like other apex predators, they are attracted to vulnerable prey and thus play a crucial role in culling the weak and diseased among their potential quarry species to assure the health and potential of populations of these species as long-term sources of food energy. The benefit to the prey species is however largely diluted in populous areas of the northeast; most venison consumed by Eastern Coyotes here is in the form of road kill. During periods of extended snow cover when small rodents and other foods become inaccessible, Eastern Coyotes, particularly young individuals, will wander into new areas seeking sustenance. Sometimes they venture into cities and suburbs where they explore the neighborhoods in search of garbage and pet foods placed outside the home. (Video clip courtesy of Tyler and Grace Good. Click image to view.)

Wildlife certainly has a tough time making it through the winter in the lower Susquehanna valley. Establishing and/or protecting habitat that includes plenty of year-round cover and sources of food and water can really give generalist species a better chance of survival. But remember, the goal isn’t to create unnatural concentrations of wildlife, it is instead to return the landscape surrounding us into more of a natural state. That’s why we try to use native plants as much as possible. And that’s why we try to attract not only a certain bird, mammal, or other creature, but we try to promote the development of a naturally functioning ecosystem with a food web, a diversity of pollinating plants, pollinating insects, and so on. Through this experience, we stand a better chance of understanding what it takes to graduate to the bigger job at hand—protecting, enhancing, and restoring habitats needed by specialist species. These are efforts worthy of the great resources that are sometimes needed to make them a success. It takes a mindset that goes beyond a focus upon the welfare of each individual animal to instead achieve the discipline to concentrate long-term on the projects and processes necessary to promote the health of the ecosystems within which specialist species live and breed. It sounds easier than it is—the majority of us frequently become distracted.

Being an individual from a population of a very successful generalist species is no guarantee of survival. This Eastern Gray Squirrel fell from a tall tree when the limbs became ice covered during a storm earlier this month. Just a freak accident? Maybe, but mistakes like this are often fatal in the natural world. This squirrel’s passing may seem brutal, but it provides a better opportunity for other squirrels and animals that share its food and cover requirements to make it through the winter. And those survivors that didn’t suffer such a fatal mistake or, more importantly, don’t possess a vulnerability that may have contributed to such a mishap will have a chance to pass those traits on to a new generation. This squirrel as an individual is gone, its species lives on, and may be stronger for its passing.

Prescribed Burn of a Grassland — Pennsylvania Game Commission crews maintain a grassland ecosystem for Short-eared Owls and other specialists using prescribed fire to prevent succession beyond its earliest stages. Among the additional specialist species benefiting from this management tool are Monarchs and other butterflies whose host plants survive early-season fire, but not competition with woody vines, shrubs, trees, and invasive herbaceous growth.

On the wider scale, it’s of great importance to identify and protect the existing and potential future habitats necessary for the survival of specialist species. And we’re not saying that solely for their benefit. These protection measures should probably include setting aside areas on higher ground that may become the beach intertidal zone or tidal marsh when the existing ones become inundated. And it may mean finally getting out of the wetlands, floodplains, and gullies to let them be the rain-absorbing, storm-buffering, water purifiers they spent millennia becoming. And it may mean it’s time to give up on building stick structures on tinderbox lands, especially hillsides and rocky outcrops with shallow, eroding soils that dry to dust every few years. We need to think ahead and stop living for the view. If you want to enjoy the view from these places, go visit and take plenty of pictures, or a video, that’s always nice—then live somewhere else. Each of these areas includes ecosystems that meet the narrow habitat requirements of many of our specialist species, and we’re building like fools in them. Then we feign victimhood and solicit pity when the calamity strikes: fires, floods, landslides, and washouts—again and again. Wouldn’t it be a whole lot smarter to build somewhere else? It may seem like a lot to do for some specialist animals, but it’s not. Because, you see, we should and can live somewhere else—they can’t.

The Allegheny Woodrat (Neotoma magister), a threatened species in Pennsylvania and a critically imperiled species in Maryland, is a habitat specialist requiring the forested rocky slopes, talus-flanked ridgetops, and caves of the Ridge and Valley Province for its nest sites and survival. Isolated populations survived within similar environs in the lower Susquehanna River valley’s Piedmont Province and on South Mountain through at least the first half of the twentieth century, but have since been extirpated. Human encroachment that fragments their habitat and promotes exposure to parasite-hosting mammals including the Raccoon (*Procyon lotor)*, carrier of the Raccoon Roundworm (Baylisascarius procyonis), could prove fatal to remaining populations of this native mammal. (National Park Service image by Rick Olsen)

The American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus) is a specialist species that uses its highly adapted bill to feed on marine invertebrates including mollusks, few of which are actually oysters. Reliant upon tidal ecosystems for its survival, many of the seashore animals that make up this wader’s diet are themselves specialist species. Oystercatchers spend nearly their entire lives in tidal marshes or within the intertidal zone on beaches. They also frequent rocky jetties, particularly during high tide. This individual was photographed near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay in Northhampton County, Virginia, a location that, when the waters of the Atlantic started rising over 10,000 years ago, was the lower Susquehanna valley about 60 miles from the river’s mouth at present-day Norfolk Canyon along the edge of the continental shelf. Get the drift?

December 18, 2024December 19, 2024

Seven Reasons to Visit Middle Creek’s Willow Point Right Now

Here are 7 reasons why you, during the coming week or so, should consider spending some time at Willow Point overlooking the lake at the Pennsylvania Game Commission’s Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area.

REASON NUMBER ONE— Wildlife is at close quarters along the trail leading from the parking lot to Willow Point…

Look carefully and you may see one or more species of woodpeckers in the mature trees. We found this Yellow-bellied Sapsucker in a maple near the trail’s terminus at the Willow Point viewing area.

REASON NUMBER TWO— A variety of waterfowl species are lingering on ice-free sections of the lake surrounding Willow Point…

Noisy flocks of Tundra Swans and Canada Geese on open water at Willow Point.

Mallards — Mallard drakes near the point.

A small flock of Green-winged Teal feeding among the Mallards.

A flock of Northern Shovelers has been frequenting the shallows along the south side of Willow Point for at least two weeks.

Common Mergansers diving for benthic fare.

REASON NUMBER THREE— Bald Eagles are conspicuous, easily seen and heard…

REASON NUMBER FOUR— Northern Harriers have been making close passes over Willow Point as they patrol Middle Creek’s grasslands while hunting voles…

REASON NUMBER FIVE— The annual observance of the White-tailed Deity holidays may be drawing to a close for the gasoline and gunpowder gang, but for the supreme ungulates, the rituals that lead to consummation of their unions are still ongoing…

REASON NUMBER SIX— Sandhill Cranes are still being seen from Willow Point…

REASON NUMBER SEVEN— The crowds that will accompany the arrival of thousands of Snow Geese in early 2025 can make visiting Willow Point a stressful experience. Visit now to see these birds and mammals at Willow Point and you might just have the place all to yourself. Then you can spend your time looking through the flocks of waterfowl and other birds for unusual new arrivals instead of wading through a sea of humanity.

December 11, 2024December 14, 2024

Purple Finch Irruption?

Each spring and fall, Purple Finches are regular migrants through the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed. Northbound movements usually peak in April and early May. During the summer, these birds nest primarily in cool coniferous forests to our north. Then, in October and November each year, they make another local appearance on their way to wintering grounds in the southeastern United States. A significant population of Purple Finches remains to our north through the colder months, inhabiting spruce-pine and mixed forests from the Great Lakes east through New England and southeastern Canada. This population can be irruptive, moving south in conspicuous numbers to escape inclement weather, food shortages, and other environmental conditions. Every few years, these irruptive birds can be found visiting suburbs, parks, and feeding stations—sometimes lingering in areas not often visited by Purple Finches. Right now, Purple Finches in flocks larger than those that moved through earlier in the fall are being seen throughout the lower Susquehanna valley. Snow and blustery weather to our north may be prompting these birds to shift south for a visit. Here are some looks at members of a gathering of more than four dozen Purple Finches we’ve been watching in Lebanon County this month…

Male Purple Finch — A male Purple Finch in successional forest edge habitat consumes seeds from a dried stand of goldenrod.

November 19, 2024November 22, 2024

Five Favorite Visitors from the Northern Forests

As the autumn bird migration draws to a close for 2024, we’re delighted to be finding five of our favorite visitors from the coniferous and mixed forests of Canada and the northernmost continental United States.

Male Yellow-bellied Sapsucker — Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers drill evenly spaced holes which they repeatedly visit to harvest “sap” and the insects that become trapped therein. These surgically small excavations penetrate only the bark and the phloem, a shallow, spongy layer of the trunk that carries sugars from the leaves to other parts of the tree. Seldom do they puncture the thin, underlying cambium layer which protects the true sapwood. After healing, sapsucker holes leave linear rows of small scars which are sometimes still discernible decades after a bird’s final visit. This adult male will probably linger in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed until colder weather renders the tree totally dormant, the flow of “sap” ebbs, and small insects become harder to find. Then he’ll make his way off toward southern forests of oak and pine for the remainder of the winter. Sapsuckers work their way north as sugary “sap” begins flowing again in the spring.

Almost the size of a thrush, the largest of our native sparrows, the Fox Sparrow, is currently at the peak of its southbound migration. While taking a break from their nocturnal flights, some may stray from forest edges to visit suburban feeding stations. Most leave our area by mid-December, then begin returning north as early as mid-February.

Not present every year, flocks of Pine Siskins are beginning to arrive in the lower Susquehanna region. They are currently most common along the mountain tops of the Ridge and Valley Province where they are feeding on the seeds of the Sweet Birch, a tree also known as Black Birch. Look for them around niger seed feeders and on the prickly seed balls of cultivated American Sweetgum, but don’t be surprised if they quickly pass us by to spend the winter on the Atlantic Coastal Plain to our south where this native tree grows in abundance.

Female/Juvenile Male Purple Finch — Since late October, Purple Finches have been widespread throughout the region. These female/juvenile male types are frequently being seen at feeders, particularly near woodlands and other areas with stands of conifers.

While right now is the best time to get out and look for these species from the northern forests, any or all of them could linger into the winter months, particularly where the food supply is sufficient and conifers and other evergreens provide cover from the blustery weather.

October 12, 2024

Things to See While You’re Leaf Peeping

During your foray to view the colorful foliage of the autumn landscape, a little effort will reveal much more than meets the eye of the casual observer.

Fallen Foliage in the Forest — Don’t just stand there like a bump on a log, go for a stroll, watch your step, and have a look around. There’s a lot to see out there!

The dense understory of this forest on Blue Mountain consists almost exclusively of Witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana).

Witch-hazel in Flower — Witch-hazel is unique among our native flowering shrubs; it blooms in autumn.

Until we experience a heavy frost, some of our most beautiful butterflies, including this Common Buckeye, remain active along forest edges.

The arrival of large numbers of Yellow-rumped Warblers heralds the transition to movements of migrants that will spend the colder months in temperate climates like ours instead of continuing on to the tropics. In winter, small numbers of “yellow-rumps” sometimes linger in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed, as long as a supply of wild berries is readily available.

The Palm Warbler, a persistent “tail wagger”, is another late-season migrant that occasionally spends the winter. The migration of these drab “Western Palm Warblers” will be followed in coming weeks by the more yellowish “Eastern Palm Warblers” of the eastern third of the species’ breeding range in Canada.

Another native sparrow, the familiar Dark-eyed Junco, is now arriving.

Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers — The Yellow-bellied Sapsucker is a secretive migratory woodpecker that is currently moving through the region on its way to southern pine forests for the winter. Juveniles like this one in the lower right remain close to their parents during migration and continue to beg for food.

You may see Eastern Bluebirds year-round in the lower Susquehanna valley, but many are migratory. A southbound push is currently transiting our area.

Hawk Watching on Blue Mountain at Boyd Big Tree Preserve. — Mix your leaf watching with hawk watching by visiting a ridgetop vista like this one at Boyd Big Tree Preserve Conservation Area on Blue Mountain north of Harrisburg and you can double your pleasure.

In addition to spectacular foliage, you stand a good chance of seeing an inquisitive Common Raven…

Screaming Red-tailed Hawk — …or a migrating Red-tailed Hawk that gives you a good scream as it passes by…

You may even double your fun by seeing two Common Ravens…

…or a couple of migrating Red-tailed Hawks…

You too can experience the joys of walking and chewing gum at the same time, so grab your field glasses, your camera, and your jacket, then spend lots of time outdoors this fall. You can see all of this and much more.

Don’t forget to click the “Hawkwatcher’s Helper: Identifying Bald Eagles and other Diurnal Raptors” tab at the top of this page to help you find a place to see both fall foliage and migrating birds of prey in coming weeks. And click the “Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines” tab to find a photo guide that can help you identify the autumn leaves you encounter during your outings.

August 31, 2024August 31, 2024

A Prescribed Fire Site After the Burn

Back on March 24th, we took a detailed look at the process involved in administering prescribed fire as a tool for managing grassland and early successional habitat. Today we’re going turn back the hands of time to give you a glimpse of how the treated site fared during the five months since the controlled burn. Let’s go back to Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area for a photo tour to see how things have come along…

Prescribed Fire application in March — Pennsylvania Game Commission crews administering prescribed fire on a grassland demonstration site back on March 16.

Prescribed Fire Site in May — By late May, native herbaceous perennial wildflowers including Joe-pye Weed had re-greened the site. One of the goals of the burn was to kill fire-sensitive woody plants, thus preventing the process of succession from reforesting the site.

Yellow-breasted Chat in May — Because prescribed fire is administered in a mosaic pattern that permits some early successional growth to remain until the next burn, birds including this thicket-nesting Yellow-breasted Chat are able to take advantage of the mixed habitat during their breeding season in May and June.

Prescribed Fire Site in August — By August, the site is a haven for native plants and animals.

Native Warm-season Grasses and Wildlflowers in August — The burn has promoted the growth and late-summer bloom of fire-tolerant native wildflowers and warm-season grasses…

Indiangrass in Flower — …including Indiangrass,…

Thin-leaved Coneflower, a plant also known as Brown-eyed Susan. — …Thin-leaved Coneflower (Rudbeckia triloba), a plant also known as Brown-eyed Susan,…

…and Joe-pye Weed, a plant butterflies find irresistible.

Eastern Tiger Swallowtail collecting nectar from Joe-pye Weed.

Black-morph Eastern Tiger Swallowtail — A black-morph Eastern Tiger Swallowtail collecting nectar from Spotted Knapweed (Centaurea steobe micranthos), a non-native invasive plant found growing in an area of the burn site missed by this year’s fire. While many non-native plants are unable to survive the flames and heat produced by prescribed fire, it isn’t an absolute cure-all. It doesn’t eliminate all invasive plants, it just keeps them from dominating a landscape by out-competing native species. Left unmanaged, Spotted Knapweed is a tough perennial invasive that can easily become one the species able to overtake a vulnerable grassland. It can be a stubborn survivor of some prescribed burns. On the plus side, butterflies really like it.

By August, native grassland plants in the prescribed fire area were already providing an abundance of seeds for birds including this American Goldfinch.

For larger birds like turkeys and pheasants, an abundance of Carolina Grasshoppers are providing a protein-dense food source in managed grasslands.

And tiny flying insects, a nuisance to us as we take a stroll alongside the grasslands, are a meal taken on the wing by dragonflies including this Black Saddlebags.

Elsewhere around the refuge at Middle Creek, prescribed fire and other management techniques are providing high-quality grassland habitat for numerous species of nesting birds…

Bobolink in Hay Field — …and in hay fields where mowing was delayed until the nesting season, including the fledging process, was completed earlier this month.

We hope you enjoyed this short photo tour of grassland management practices. Now, we’d like to leave you with one last set of pictures—a set you may find as interesting as we found them. Each is of a different Eastern Cottontail, a species we found to be particularly common on prescribed fire sites when we took these images in late May. The first two are of the individuals we happened to be able to photograph in areas subjected to fire two months earlier in March. The latter two are of cottontails we happened to photograph elsewhere on the refuge in areas not in proximity to ground treated with a prescribed burn or exposed to accidental fire in recent years.

Eastern Cottontail at a site subjected to prescribed fire earlier in the spring.

These first two rabbits are living the good life in a warm-season grass wonderland.

Eastern Cottontail with ticks. — Eastern Cottontail at a site not subjected to any recent fire activity.

Oh Deer! Oh Deer! These last two rabbits have no clock to track the time; they have only ticks. Better not go for a stroll with them Alice—that’s no wonderland! I know, I know, it’s time to go. See ya later.

May 25, 2024May 26, 2024

Photo of the Day

May 11, 2024May 12, 2024

More Migrating Birds

As waves of wet weather persistently roll through the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed, the tide of northbound migrants continues. Here are few of today’s highlights…

Lincoln's Sparrow — The seldom seen Lincoln’s Sparrow likes wet thickets for layovers during its passage through the lower Susquehanna valley. They are often the last of the migratory sparrows to transit the area in May. These elusive birds nest primarily in boggy thickets far to the north of our region, mostly in Canada.

Colorful warblers are still arriving. Remember to watch for them in unusual places due to stormy weather. Earlier today, we spotted this Northern Parula prowling a lakeside willow instead of spending its time among the crown foliage and vines adorning mature forest trees. Breezy conditions ahead of an afternoon shower may have prompted this bird to seek caterpillars and other grub in this protected location.

As May churns on, more and more shorebirds will be moving through on their way to nesting grounds in the interior of Canada. This flock of Least and Solitary Sandpipers was found on the muddy margins of a man-made pond. Flooded portions of farm fields and stormwater basins are also good places to see these migrants as they trek north.

May 8, 2024May 14, 2024

A Pre-dawn Thunderstorm and a Fallout of Migrating Birds

In recent days, the peak northbound push of migratory birds that includes the majority of our colorful Neotropical species has been slowed to a trickle by the presence of rain, fog, and low overcast throughout the Mid-Atlantic States. Following sunset last evening, the nocturnal flight resumed—only to be grounded this morning during the pre-dawn hours by the west-to-east passage of a fast-moving line of strong thundershowers. The NOAA/National Weather Service images that follow show the thunderstorms as well as returns created by thousands of migrating birds as they pass through the Doppler Radar coverage areas that surround the lower Susquehanna valley.

Sterling, Virginia, Doppler Radar west of Washington, D.C., at 4:00 A.M. E.D.T. indicates a dense flight of northbound migrating birds located just to the south of the approaching line of rain and thunderstorms over the State College, Pennsylvania, radar coverage area. (NOAA/National Weather Service image)

More northbound birds are indicated at 4 A.M. by the radar station located at Dover, Delaware… (NOAA/National Weather Service image)

…and by the Mount Holly, New Jersey, radar site. (NOAA/National Weather Service image)

Many of the migrating birds shown here over the Binghamton, New York, radar station at 4 A.M. probably overflew the lower Susquehanna region earlier in the night. (NOAA/National Weather Service image)

And these birds over Albany, New York’s, radar station at 4 A.M. are mostly migrants that passed north over New Jersey and easternmost Pennsylvania last evening and during the wee hours of this morning. (NOAA/National Weather Service image)

Just after 4 A.M., flashes of lightning in rapid succession repeatedly illuminated the sky over susquehannawildlife.net headquarters. Despite the rumbles of thunder and the din of noises typical for our urban setting, the call notes of nocturnal migrants could be heard as these birds descended in search of a suitable place to make landfall and seek shelter from the storm. At least one Wood Thrush and a Swainson’s Thrush (Catharus ustulatus) were in the mix of species passing overhead. A short time later at daybreak, a Great Crested Flycatcher was heard calling from a stand of nearby trees and a White-crowned Sparrow was seen in the garden searching for food. None of these aforementioned birds is regular here at our little oasis, so it appears that a significant and abrupt fallout has occurred.

Looks like a good day to take the camera for a walk. Away we go!

Along woodland edges, in thickets, and in gardens, Gray Catbirds were everywhere today. We heard and/or saw hundreds of them.

During our travels, American Redstarts were the most frequently encountered warbler. Look for them in low-lying forested habitats.

Many early-arriving Baltimore Orioles have already begun building nests. But widespread territorial fighting today may be an indication that some latecomer orioles became trespassers after dropping in on existing territories during the morning fallout.

Red-eyed Vireos are difficult to see but easily heard in forested areas throughout the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed.

If the oriole isn’t the showiest of the Neotropical migrants, then the Scarlet Tanager is certainly a contender…

The Eastern Wood-Pewee, another forest denizen, has an easy song to learn…a series of ascending “pee-a-wee” phrases interspersed with an occasional descending “pee-urr”. It was one of the few flycatchers we found today, but more are certainly on the way. Their numbers should peak in coming days.

If today you were to visit a streamside thicket or any type of early successional habitat, you would probably find this perky little warbler there, the Common Yellowthroat.

There’s obviously more spring migration to come, so do make an effort to visit an array of habitats during the coming weeks to see and hear the wide variety of birds, including the spectacular Neotropical species, that visit the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed each May. You won’t regret it!

Wood Ducks arrived in February and March to breed in the lower Susquehanna valley. Soon after hatching in April or May, the young leave the nest cavity to travel under the watchful gaze of their ever-vigilant mother as they search for food along our local waterways. If you’re fortunate, you might catch a glimpse of a brood and hen while you’re out looking at the more than one hundred species of birds that occur in our region during the first half of May. Good luck!

April 18, 2024April 18, 2024

Photo of the Day

March 24, 2024August 30, 2024

Prescribed Fire: Controlled Burns for Forest and Non-forest Habitats

Homo sapiens owes much of its success as a species to an acquired knowledge of how to make, control, and utilize fire. Using fire to convert the energy stored in combustible materials into light and heat has enabled humankind to expand its range throughout the globe. Indeed, humans in their furless incomplete mammalian state may have never been able to expand their populations outside of tropical latitudes without mastery of fire. It is fire that has enabled man to exploit more of the earth’s resources than any other species. From cooking otherwise unpalatable foods to powering the modern industrial society, fire has set man apart from the rest of the natural world.

In our modern civilizations, we generally look at the unplanned outbreak of fire as a catastrophe requiring our immediate intercession. A building fire, for example, is extinguished as quickly as possible to save lives and property. And fires detected in fields, brush, and woodlands are promptly controlled to prevent their exponential growth. But has fire gone to our heads? Do we have an anthropocentric view of fire? Aren’t there naturally occurring fires that are essential to the health of some of the world’s ecosystems? And to our own safety? Indeed there are. And many species and the ecosystems they inhabit rely on the periodic occurrence of fire to maintain their health and vigor.

**For the war effort-** The campaign to reduce the frequency of forest fires got its start during World War II with distribution of this poster in 1942. The goal was to protect the nation’s timber resources from accidental or malicious loss due to fire caused by man-made ignition sources. The release of the Walt Disney film “Bambi” during the same year and the adoption of the Smokey the Bear mascot in 1944 softened the message’s delivery, but the public relations outreach continued to be a key element of a no-fire policy to save trees for lumber. Protection and management of healthy forest ecosystems in their entirety has only recently become a priority. (National Archives image)

Man has been availed of the direct benefits of fire for possibly 40,000 years or more. Here in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed, the earliest humans arrived as early as 12,000 years ago—already possessing skills for using fire. Native plants and animals on the other hand, have been part of the ever-changing mix of ecosystems found here for a much longer period of time—millions to tens of millions of years. Many terrestrial native species are adapted to the periodic occurrence of fire. Some, in fact, require it. Most upland ecosystems need an occasional dose of fire, usually ignited by lightning (though volcanism and incoming cosmic projectiles are rare possibilities), to regenerate vegetation, release nutrients, and maintain certain non-climax habitat types.

But much of our region has been deprived of natural-type fires since the time of the clearcutting of the virgin forests during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This absence of a natural fire cycle has contributed to degradation and/or elimination of many forest and non-forest habitats. Without fire, a dangerous stockpile of combustible debris has been collecting, season after season, in some areas for a hundred years or more. Lacking periodic fires or sufficient moisture to sustain prompt decomposition of dead material, wildlands can accumulate enough leaf litter, thatch, dry brush, tinder, and fallen wood to fuel monumentally large forest fires—fires similar to those recently engulfing some areas of the American west. So elimination of natural fire isn’t just a problem for native plants and animals, its a potential problem for humans as well.

Indiangrass on Fire — Indiangrass (seen here), Switchgrass, Big Bluestem, and Little Bluestem are native species requiring periodic forms of disturbance to eliminate competition by woody plants. These warm-season grasses develop roots that penetrate deep into the soil, sometimes to depths of six feet or more, allowing them to survive severe drought and flash fire events. In the tall grass prairies, these extensive root systems allow these grasses to return following heavy grazing by roaming herds of American Bison (Bison bison). Without these habitat disturbances, warm season grasslands succumb to succession in about seven years. With their periodic occurrence, the plants thrive and provide excellent wildlife habitat, erosion control, and grazing forage.

To address the habitat ailments caused by a lack of natural fires, federal, state, and local conservation agencies are adopting the practice of “prescribed fire” as a treatment to restore ecosystem health. A prescribed fire is a controlled burn specifically planned to correct one or more vegetative management problems on a given parcel of land. In the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed, prescribed fire is used to…

- - Eliminate dangerous accumulations of combustible fuels in woodlands.
  - Reduce accumulations of dead plant material that may harbor disease.
  - Provide top kill to promote oak regeneration.
  - Regenerate other targeted species of trees, wildflowers, grasses, and vegetation.
  - Kill non-native plants and promote growth of native plants.
  - Prevent succession.
  - Remove woody growth and thatch from grasslands.
  - Promote fire tolerant species of plants and animals.
  - Create, enhance, and/or manage specialized habitats.
  - Improve habitat for rare species (Regal Fritillary, etc.)
  - Recycle nutrients and minerals contained in dead plant material.

Let’s look at some examples of prescribed fire being implemented right here in our own neighborhood…

Prescribed Fire at Fort Indiantown Gap — Prescribed fire is used regularly at Fort Indiantown Gap Military Reservation in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania, to keep accumulations of woody and herbaceous fuels from accumulating on and around the training range areas where live ordinance and other sources of ignition could otherwise spark large, hard-to-control wildfires.

Prescribed fire in grassland. — A prescribed fire in late winter prevents this grassland consisting of Big Bluestem and native wildflowers from being overtaken by woody growth and invasive species. Fires such as this that are intended to interrupt the process of succession are repeated at least every three to five years.

Prescribed Fire to Control Invasive Species — In its wildlife food plots, prescribed fire is used by the Pennsylvania Game Commission to prevent succession and control invasive species such as Multiflora Rose, instead promoting the growth of native plants.

A woodlot understory choked with combustible fuels and tangles of invasive Multiflora Rose. — An example of a woodlot understory choked with combustible fuels and dense tangles of invasive Multiflora Rose. A forester has the option of prescribing a dose of dormant-season fire for a site like this to reduce the fuel load, top kill non-native vegetation, and regenerate native plants.

Precribed Fire to Eliminate Woody Growth — A dose of prescribed fire was administered on this grassland to kill the woody growth of small trees beginning to overtake the habitat by succession.

Precribed Fire Education Sign at middle creek Wildlife Management Area — The Pennsylvania Game Commission employs prescribed fire at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area and on many of their other holdings to maintain grasslands.

Prescribed fire is used to eliminate invasive species including Multiflora Rose from grasslands at Middle Creek W.M.A. Annual burns on the property are conducted in a mosaic pattern so that each individual area of the grassland is exposed to the effects of fire only once every two to five years. Without fire or some type of mechanical or chemical intervention, succession by woody trees and shrubs would take hold after about seven years.

Prescribed fire is planned for a fraction of total grassland acreage at Middle Creek W.M.A. each year. Another section of the mosaic is targeted in the following year and yet another in the year that follows that. Because burns are conducted in the spring, grassland cover is available for wildlife throughout the winter. And because each year’s fire burns only a portion of the total grassland acreage, wildlife still has plenty of standing grass in which to take shelter during and after the prescribed fire.

Prescribed Burn Maintains Savanna-like Habitat — On a few sites in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed , prescribed fire is being used to establish and maintain savanna-like grasslands. This one, located on a dry, south-facing slope near numerous man-made sources of ignition, can easily be dosed with periodic prescribed burns to both prevent succession and reduce fuel accumulations that may lead to a devastating extreme fire.

Pitch Pines in Savanna-like Habitat — One year following a prescribed burn, this is the autumn appearance of a savanna-like habitat with fire-tolerant Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida), Bear Oak, warm-season grasses, and a variety of nectar-producing wildflowers for pollinators. These ecosystems are magnets for wildlife and may prove to be a manageable fit on sun-drenched sites adjacent to man-made land disturbances and their sources of ignition.

Red-headed Woodpecker Adult and Juvenile — Savanna-like grasslands with oaks and other scattered large trees, some of them dead, make attractive nesting habitat for the uncommon Red-headed Woodpecker.

Wild Turkey in Savanna-like Habitat — Prescribed fire can benefit hungry Wild Turkeys by maintaining savanna-like grasslands for an abundance of grasshoppers and other insects in summer and improving the success of mast-producing oaks for winter.

In the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed, the caterpillar of the rare Eastern Buck Moth feeds on the foliage of the Bear Oak, also known as the Scrub Oak, a shrubby species that relies upon periodic fire to eliminate competition from larger trees in its early successional habitat.

Leaves of the Bear Oak in fall. The Bear Oak regenerates readily from top kill caused by fire.

Reed Canary Grass (Phalaris arundinacea) is a native cool-season grass with a colorful inflorescence in spring. But given the right situation, it can aggressively overtake other species to create a pure stand lacking biodiversity. It is one of the few native species which is sometimes labelled “invasive”.

Prescribed Burn to Reduce Prevalence of Reed Canary Grass — Prescribed fire can be used to reduce an overabundance of Reed Canary Grass and its thatch in wetlands. Periodic burning can help restore species diversity in these habitats for plants and animals including rare species such as the endangered Bog Turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii).

On the range areas at Fort Indiantown Gap in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania, disturbances by armored vehicles mimic the effects of large mammals such as the American Bison which periodically trampled grasses to prevent succession and the establishment of woody plants on its prairie habitat. To supplement the activity of the heavy vehicles and to provide suitable habitat for the very rare Regal Fritillary (Speyeria idalia) butterflies found there, prescribed fire is periodically employed to maintain the grasslands on the range. These burns are planned to encourage the growth of “Fort Indiantown Gap Little Bluestem” grass as well as the violets used as host plants by the Regal Fritillary caterpillars. These fires also promote growth of a variety of native summer-blooming wildflowers to provide nectar for the adults butterflies.

Depiction of Pennsylvania's Last American Bison, Killed in Union County in 1801. (Exhibit: State Museum of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg) — A last record of a wild American Bison killed in Pennsylvania was an animal taken in the Susquehanna watershed in Union County in 1801. The species is thereafter considered extirpated from the state. Since that time, natural disturbances needed to regenerate warm-season grasses have been limited primarily to fires and riverine ice scour. The waning occurrence of both has reduced the range of these grasses and their prairie-like ecosystems in the commonwealth. (Exhibit: State Museum of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg)

A male Regal Fritillary on the range at Fort Indiantown Gap, where armored vehicles and prescribed fire provide suitable prairie-like habitat for this vulnerable species.

Honey Bee Collecting Minerals After Prescribed Burn — Prescribed fires return the nutrients and minerals contained in dead plant material to the soil. Following these controlled burns, insects like this Honey Bee can often be seen collecting minerals from the ashes.

Fly Collecting Minerals from Burned Grasses — A Greenbottle Fly gathering minerals from the ash following a prescribed burn.

In Pennsylvania, state law provides landowners and crews conducting prescribed fire burns with reduced legal liability when the latter meet certain educational, planning, and operational requirements. This law may help encourage more widespread application of prescribed fire in the state’s forests and other ecosystems where essential periodic fire has been absent for so very long. Currently in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed, prescribed fire is most frequently being employed by state agencies on state lands—in particular, the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources on State Forests and the Pennsylvania Game Commission on State Game Lands. Prescribed fire is also part of the vegetation management plan at Fort Indiantown Gap Military Reservation and on the land holdings of the Hershey Trust. Visitors to the nearby Gettysburg National Military Park will also notice prescribed fire being used to maintain the grassland restorations there.

For crews administering prescribed fire burns, late March and early April are a busy time. The relative humidity is often at its lowest level of the year, so the probability of ignition of previous years’ growth is generally at its best. We visited with a crew administering a prescribed fire at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area last week. Have a look…

Members of a Pennsylvania Game Commission burn crew provide visitors to Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area with an overview of prescribed fire. — Members of a Pennsylvania Game Commission burn crew provide visitors to Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area with an overview of prescribed fire and the equipment and techniques they use to conduct a burn.

Burn Boss Checking Weather — Pennsylvania Game Commission Southeast Region Forester Andy Weaver will fulfill the role of Burn Boss for administering this day’s dose of fire. His responsibilities include assessing the weather before the burn and calculating a probability of ignition.

Burn Boss Briefing Crew — The Burn Boss briefs personnel with information on site layout, water supply location(s), places of refuge, emergency procedures, the event’s goals and plan of action, crew assignments, and the results of the weather check: wind from the northwest at 5 miles per hour, temperature 48 degrees, and the relative humidity 63%. Today’s patient is a parcel of warm-season grasses receiving a dose of fire to eliminate invasive non-native plants, woody growth, and thatch. The probability of ignition is 20%, but improving by the minute.

Prescribed Fire Test Burn — To begin the burn, a test fire is started in the downwind corner of the parcel, which also happens to be the bottom of the slope. Fuel ignition is good. The burn can proceed.

Igniting the Fire — Crews proceed uphill from the location of the test fire while igniting combustibles along both flanks of the area being treated.

Prescribed Fire Crew Member with Equipment — A drip torch is used to ignite the dried stems and leaves of warm-season grasses and wildflowers. Each member of the burn crew wears Nomex fire-resistant clothing and carries safety equipment including a two-way radio, a hydration pack, and a cocoon-like emergency fire shelter.

Wildfire ATV — An all-terrain vehicle equipped with various tools, a fire pump, hose, and a small water tank accompanies the crew on each flank of the fire.

Effective Fire Break — With green cool-season grasses already growing on the trails surrounding the burn zone, very little water was used to contain this prescribed fire. Where such convenient fire breaks don’t already exist, crews carry tools including chain saws, shovels, and leaf blowers to create their own. They also carry flame swatters, backpack water pumps, shovels, and other tools to extinguish fires if necessary. None of these items were needed to control this particular fire.

Halting the Process of Succession in a Grassland with Prescribed Fire — This fast-burning fire provides enough heat to damage the cambium layer of the woody tree and shrub saplings in this parcel being maintained as a grassland/wildflower plot, thus the process of succession is forestalled. Burns conducted during previous years on this and adjacent fields have also controlled aggressive growth of invasive Multiflora Rose and Olives (Elaeagnus species).

Containing the Fire on the Flanks — Crews proceed up the slope while maintaining the perimeter by igniting dry plant material along the flanks of the burn zone.

The Crew Monitors the Burn — Ignition complete, the crews monitor the fire.

Prescribed Fire: Natural Mosaic-style Burn Pattern — The Burn Boss surveys the final stages of a safe and successful prescribed fire. The fire has left behind a mosaic of burned and unburned areas, just as a naturally occurring event may have done. Wildlife dodging the flames may be taking refuge in the standing grasses, so there is no remedial attempt to go back and ignite these areas. They’ll be burned during prescribed fires in coming years.

By June, this grassland will again be lush and green with warm-season grasses and blooming wildflowers like this Common Milkweed being visited by a Great Spangled Fritillary.

And later in the summer, Eastern Tiger Swallowtails on Joe-pye Weed.

Bobolinks in Indiangrass — Bobolinks glow in the late August sun while taking flight from a stand of warm-season grasses maintained using springtime prescribed fire. The small dots on the dark background at the top of the image are multitudes of flying insects, many of them pollinators. The vegetation is predominately Indiangrass, excellent winter cover for birds, mammals, and other wildlife.

Prescribed burns aren’t a cure-all for what ails a troubled forest or other ecosystem, but they can be an effective remedy for deficiencies caused by a lack of periodic episodes of naturally occurring fire. They are an important option for modern foresters, wildlife managers, and other conservationists.

March 3, 2024March 5, 2024

Snow Geese, Bald Eagles, and More at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area

To take advantage of this unusually mild late-winter day, observers arrived by the thousands to have a look at an even greater number of migratory birds gathered at the Pennsylvania Game Commission’s Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area. Here are some highlights…

Trails at Middle creek Wildlife Management Area — Multitudes of Sunday hikers enjoyed the warm afternoon on Middle Creek’s many trails.

In one of Middle Creek’s numerous impoundments, newly emerged Painted Turtles bask in the sunshine.

Native blackbirds, particularly males including this Brown-headed Cowbird, are arriving to stake out a claim on suitable breeding territory.

Male Red-winged Blackbirds visit the feeding station at the Middle Creek W.M.A. Visitor’s Center.

Brown-headed Cowbird and Red-winged Blackbird — Brown-headed Cowbirds regularly maintain close association with Red-winged Blackbirds, a frequent victim of the former’s nest parasitism, the practice of laying and abandoning their eggs in a host species’ abode. By early May, adult “red-wings” can often be seen tending fledged cowbird young raised at the expense of their own progeny.

Common Grackles displaying. — Male Common Grackles display their colors in an attempt to establish dominance.

Bare croplands and muddy shorelines around Middle Creek’s lakes and ponds are attracting migrating Killdeer. Some will stay to nest.

Hundreds of Ring-billed Gulls arrived during the late afternoon to spend the night on the main lake.

Canada Geese could be seen coming and going, with migratory birds apparently supplementing the resident flock. This group flushed when a Bald Eagle passed close by.

Adult Bald Eagle — An adult Bald Eagle in definitive plumage investigating the inhabitants of the lake.

Second-year Bald Eagle — This Bald Eagle in its second calendar year is not yet one year of age, but it has already begun replacing dark body feathers with a light plumage that will earn it the nickname “white belly” for this and its third year. It will start molting its long hatch-year (juvenile) flight feathers soon after its first birthday.

Second-year Bald Eagle and Red-tailed Hawk — Another second-year immature Bald Eagle, this one being scolded by the aforementioned territorial Red-tailed Hawk. Though showing some wear in the tail, this eagle still has a full set of lengthy hatch-year (juvenile) flight feathers and remains mostly dark below when compared to the bird of the same age class seen in the previous image. As in other birds, diet, genetics, stress, climatic conditions, and many other factors will frequently vary the timing of molt among individuals in a population of Bald Eagles.

Third-year Bald Eagle — An immature Bald Eagle in its third calendar year still retaining numerous long juvenile wing and tail feathers. In coming months, as it reaches its second birthday, it will begin replacing the remaining older plumage with a set of new flight feathers.

Fourth-year Bald Eagle — An immature Bald Eagle in its fourth calendar year approaches its third birthday with a rather conspicuous long juvenile feather remaining in each wing. These feathers will soon be replaced. In addition, the body plumage will darken, the head will begin to show more white, and the bill will become yellow. In about two more years, the bird will attain its familiar adult definitive plumage. Click the “Hawkwatcher’s Helper: Identifying Bald Eagles and other Diurnal Raptors” tab at the top of this page to learn more about determining the age of these and other birds of prey.

Snow Geese and Observers at Middle Creek W.M.A. — Bald Eagles draw a crowd, but the real attraction at Middle Creek W.M.A. in late winter is Snow Geese,…

Snow geese at Middle Creek W.M.A. — Migratory Snow Geese, an annual spectacle at Middle Creek.

Snow Geese and hundreds of onlookers. — Snow Geese and hundreds of delighted onlookers.

Short-eared Owl at M.C.W.M.A. — As daylight waned and the Snow Geese returned to the main lake for the night, more than one hundred lucky observers were treated to the rare sight of several Short-eared Owls (Asio flammeus) emerging to hunt the refuge’s managed grasslands for mice and voles. For many of these visitors, it was a memorable first-time experience.

February 15, 2024February 15, 2024

Birds Beginning to Wander

Since Tuesday’s snow storm, the susquehannawiildlife.net headquarters garden continues to bustle with bird activity.

Our Northern Mockingbird remains ever vigilant in its attempts to discourage American Robins and Eastern Bluebirds from feeding on the berry crop. Slowly, the latter species are winning the contest.

Carolina Chickadee feeding on sunflower seed. — A Carolina Chickadee carefully dissects a sunflower seed to snack on the nutritious kernel.

This beauty shows us that yes, Red-bellied Woodpeckers do indeed have red bellies.

American Robin eating Common Winterberry fruits. — Getting energized for a big move north, the robins keep on gulping berries.

Today, there arrived three species of birds we haven’t seen here since autumn. These birds are, at the very least, beginning to wander in search of food. Then too, these may be individuals creeping slowly north to secure an advantage over later migrants by being the first to establish territories on the most favorable nesting grounds.

This Song Sparrow is the first we’ve seen in the garden since sometime last fall. Is it working its way north or did it just come to town in search of food?

Northern Flickers regularly spend the winter in small numbers in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed. This is the first one we’ve had visit the garden since late last autumn.

Fish Crows feeding on Eastern Red Cedar berries. — Fish Crows, seen here feeding on the fruits adorning an Eastern Red Cedar, have returned after being absent in our neighborhood since November. In coming weeks, both they and the more numerous American Crows that remained through winter will begin constructing nests in nearby trees.

They say the early bird gets the worm. More importantly, it gets the most favorable nesting spot. What does the early birder get? He or she gets out of the house and enjoys the action as winter dissolves into the miracle of spring. Do make time to go afield and marvel a bit, won’t you? See you there!

January 26, 2024January 26, 2024

The Fog of a January Thaw

As week-old snow and ice slowly disappears from the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed landscape, we ventured out to see what might be lurking in the dense clouds of fog that for more than two days now have accompanied a mid-winter warm spell.

York Haven Dam Powerhouse — After freezing to a slushy consistency earlier this week, the Susquehanna is already beginning to thaw. Below the York Haven Dam at Conewago Falls, the water is open and ice-free.

Mallards and a pair of American Wigeon on a frozen lake. — On frozen man-made lakes and ponds, geese and ducks like these Mallards and American Wigeon are presently concentrated around small pockets of open water.

American Robin in a Callery pear — During the past ten days, American Robin numbers have exploded throughout the lower Susquehanna valley. The majority of these birds may be a mix of both those coming south to escape the late onset of wintry conditions to our north and those inching north into our region as early spring migrants.

Cooper's Hawk — A visit by this young Cooper’s Hawk to the susquehannnawildlife.net headquarters garden sent songbirds scrambling…

Red-shouldered Hawk in flight. — Unimpressed, each of our visiting buteos remained for just a few minutes before moving on in search of more favorable hunting grounds and prey.

Early Successional Growth — As snow melted and exposed bare ground in fields of early successional growth, we encountered…

Adult Male Northern Harrier — What could be more appropriate on a foggy, gray evening than finding a “gray ghost” (adult male Northern Harrier) patrolling the fields in search of mice and voles.

If scenes of a January thaw begin to awaken your hopes and aspirations for all things spring, then you’ll appreciate this pair of closing photographs…

Pileated Woodpecker in Silver Maple — The maroon-red flower buds of Silver Maples are beginning to swell. And woodpeckers including Pileated Woodpeckers are beginning to drum, a timber-pounding behavior they use to establish breeding territories in habitats with suitable sites for cavity nesting.

In wet soil surrounding spring seeps and streams, Skunk Cabbage is rising through the leaf litter to herald the coming of a new season. Spring must surely be just around the corner.

January 22, 2024January 22, 2024

Birds Along the River’s Edge

Just as bare ground along a plowed road attracts birds in an otherwise snow-covered landscape, a receding river or large stream can provide the same benefit to hungry avians looking for food following a winter storm.

Here is a small sample of some of the species seen during a brief stop along the Susquehanna earlier this week.

This Golden-crowned Kinglet was observed searching the trees and shrubs along the Susquehanna shoreline for tiny insects and spiders. Temperatures above the bare ground along the receding river can be a few degrees higher than in surrounding snow-covered areas, thus improving the chances of finding active prey among the trunks and limbs of the riparian forest.

Not far from the kinglet, a Brown Creeper is seen searching the bark of a Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) for wintering insects, as well as their eggs and larvae. Spiders in all their life stages are a favorite too.

American Pipits not only inhabit farm fields during the winter months, they are quite fond of bare ground along the Susquehanna. Seen quite easily along a strip of pebbly shoreline exposed by receding water, these birds will often escape notice when spending time on mid-river gravel and sand bars during periods of low flow.

An American Pipit on a bitterly cold afternoon along the Susquehanna.

January 6, 2024January 6, 2024

Birds of Snow-covered Farmland

When the ground becomes snow covered, it’s hard to imagine anything lives in the vast wide-open expanses of cropland found in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed’s fertile valleys.

Snow-covered Farm Field — A snow-covered field with no standing vegetation. For nearly all wild birds, mammals, and other animals, modern agricultural practices offer no means of sustenance, particularly during the winter months.

Yet, there is one group of birds that can be found scrounging a living from what little exists after a season of high-intensity farming. Meet the Horned Lark.

Horned Larks occur year-round in the lower Susquehanna region. Birds found wintering here are hardy individuals that breed in the arctic tundra, terrain reminiscent of our treeless farmlands. Another population of larks seems to have adapted to no-till farming, nesting with some success in unplowed fields during the early part of the growing season. The impact of herbicide application on survival of these broods could be a topic of research for an energetic student out there…hint, hint.

A Flock of Horned Larks — Nearly invisible on bare ground, Horned Larks are much more conspicuous after a fresh snowfall. For protection from predators, they gather in flocks. During the days of raw manure application, 300 to 500 larks could be found attracted to a freshly spread strip in a snow-covered field. Modern liquid manure, which contains fewer undigested seeds and grains for larks, is not as attractive to these and other birds.

Horned Larks in Snow — During severe storms, we’ve seen Horned Larks remain active throughout the night. We’ve even witnessed them taking shelter by burying themselves in the snow.

Horned Lark in Flight — To find food, Horned Larks are constantly on the move…

Horned Lark — …seeking out bare ground or the seed-bearing tops of plant stems that remain exposed above the snow.

Horned Larks Feeding at Roadside — Following storms, Horned Larks often gather along roadsides where snow removal has revealed “weed” seeds and other tiny morsels that, though they are almost imperceptible to us, are a meal for a Horned Lark.

A Horned Lark munching "weed" seeds. — A Horned Lark munching “weed” seeds.

Horned Larks and Lapland Longsrurs — Flocks of wintering Horned Larks will sometimes contain one or more of the several much less numerous species with a similar proclivity for tundra-like environs during the colder months. We examined this gathering a little bit more closely…

Lapland Longspurs and Horned Larks — …and found these Lapland Longspurs (Calcarius lapponicus). In winter, Lapland Longspurs (the two streaked birds: one to the far left and the other high-stepping the white line) can be hard to discern from the earth tones of farmland habitat. Breeding males, however, are a brilliant white with a chestnut-colored nape and a black bib, mask, and cap. On rare occasions, these males in spectacular alternate plumage can be found in the lower Susquehanna valley prior to their departure to nesting areas near the treeline in northern Canada and Alaska.

A close-up image (through the windshield) of a roadside flock of Horned larks and three Lapland Longspurs (top, far right, and third from bottom).

If you decide to take a little post-storm trip to look for Horned Larks and Lapland Longspurs, be sure to drive carefully. Do your searching on quiet rural roads with minimal traffic. Stop and park only where line-of-sight and other conditions allow it to be done safely. Use your flashers and check your mirrors often. Think before you stop and park—don’t get stuck or make a muddy mess. And most important of all, be aware that you’re on a roadway—get out of the way of traffic.

If you’re not going out to look for larks and longspurs, we do have a favor to ask of you. Please remember to slow down while you’re driving. Not only is this an accident-prone time of year for people in cars and trucks, it’s a dangerous time for birds and other wildlife too. They’re at greatest peril of getting run over while concentrated along roadsides looking for food following snow storms.

The American Pipit is another barren-field specialist that can be found feeding at roadside following snowstorms, particularly when they coincide with the bird’s migration in late fall or early spring. (Vintage 35 mm image)

The Snow Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis), like the Lapland Longspur, occurs among flocks of Horned Larks in winter. Other barren-ground birds you’ll see feeding along country roads following significant snowfalls include Savannah and Vesper Sparrows.

January 3, 2024March 30, 2024

Birds of the Sunny Grasslands

With the earth at perihelion (its closest approach to the sun) and with our home star just 27 degrees above the horizon at midday, bright low-angle light offered the perfect opportunity for doing some wildlife photography today. We visited a couple of grasslands managed by the Pennsylvania Game Commission to see what we could find…

Grasslands and Hedgerows — On this State Game Lands parcel, prescribed fire is used to maintain a mix of grasslands and brushy early successional growth. In nearby areas, both controlled fire and mechanical cutting are used to remove invasive species from hedgerows and the understory of woodlots. Fire tolerant native species then have an opportunity to recolonize the forest and improve wildlife habitat. This management method also reduces the fuel load in areas with the potential for uncontrolled wildfires.

The sun-dried fruits of a Common Persimmon tree found growing in a hedgerow. — The sun-dried fruits of a native Common Persimmon tree found growing in a hedgerow.

Savanna-like Grasslands — Just one year ago, mechanical removal of invasive trees and shrubs (including Multiflora Rose) on this State Game Land was followed by a prescribed fire to create this savanna-like grassland.

In grasses and tangles on wetter ground, about a dozen Swamp Sparrows were discovered.

A tiny bird, even when compared to a sparrow, the Winter Wren often provides the observer with just a brief glimpse before darting away into the cover of a thicket.

Standing Clump of Timber — Within grasslands, scattered stands of live and dead timber can provide valuable habitat for many species of animals.

A "snag" with an excavated nest cavity. — Woodpeckers and other cavity-nesting birds rely upon an abundance of “snags” (standing dead trees) for breeding sites.

December 2, 2023December 2, 2023

Photos of a Visiting Cooper’s Hawk

While trimming the trees and shrubs in the susquehannawildlife.net garden, it didn’t seem particularly unusual to hear the resident Carolina Chickadees and Carolina Wrens scolding our every move. But after a while, their persistence did seem a bit out of the ordinary, so we took a little break to have a look around…

Juvenile Cooper's Hawk — There, just ten to twelve feet away, was this juvenile Cooper’s Hawk, perched quietly and having a look around.

Here at susquehannawildlife.net headquarters, we are visited by Cooper’s Hawks for several days during the late fall and winter each year. The small birds that visit our feeders have plenty of trees, shrubs, vines, and other natural cover in which to hide from raptors and other native predators. We don’t create unnatural concentrations of birds by dumping food all over the place. We try to keep our small birds healthy by sparingly offering fresh seed and other provisions in clean receptacles to provide a supplement to the seeds, fruits, insects, and other foods that occur naturally in the garden. With only a few vulnerable small birds around, the Cooper’s Hawks visit just long enough to cull out our weakest individuals before moving elsewhere. While they’re in our garden, they too are our welcomed guests.

November 23, 2023

Time to Eat

A glimpse of the rowdy guests crowding the Thanksgiving Day dinner table at susquehannawildlife.net headquarters…

A male White-breasted Nuthatch visits a peanut feeder…

November 14, 2023November 15, 2023

Sparrows in the Thicket

As the annual autumn songbird migration begins to reach its end, native sparrows can be found concentrating in fallow fields, early successional thickets, and brushy margins along forest edges throughout the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed.

Brushy Thicket — A streamside thicket composed of seed-producing grasses and wildflowers as well as fruit-bearing shrubs and vines can be ideal habitat for migrating and wintering native sparrows.

Visit native sparrow habitat during mid-to-late November and you have a good chance of seeing these species and more…

The Eastern Towhee is a large native sparrow most often found in early successional growth near woodlands. Look for them in utility right-of-ways.

If you’re lucky enough to live where non-native House Sparrows won’t overrun your bird feeders, you can offer white millet as a supplement to the wild foods these beautiful sparrows might find in your garden sanctuary. Give it a try!

July 30, 2023August 25, 2023

Some Good Reasons to Postpone Mowing Until Mid-August

Here in a series of photographs are just a handful of the reasons why the land stewards at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area and other properties where conservation and propagation practices are employed delay the mowing of fields composed of cool-season grasses until after August 15 each year.

At places like Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area where a mix of grasslands, early successional growth, and even some cropland are maintained, the Blue Grosbeak has extended its range well north of the Mason-Dixon and has become a regular nesting species during recent decades. Good habitat management does pay dividends.

Right now is a good time to visit Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area to see the effectiveness a delayed mowing schedule can have when applied to fields of cool-season grasses. If you slowly drive, walk, or bicycle the auto tour route on the north side of the lake, you’ll pass through vast areas maintained as cool-season and warm-season grasses and early successional growth—and you’ll have a chance to see these and other grassland birds raising their young. It’s like a trip back in time to see farmlands they way they were during the middle years of the twentieth century.

February 4, 2023February 5, 2023

Berries and More on a Bitter Cold Morning

The annual arrival of hoards of American Robins to devour the fruits found on the various berry-producing shrubs and trees in the garden at susquehannawildlife.net headquarters happened to coincide with this morning’s bitter cold temperatures. Here are photos of some of those hungry robins—plus shots of the handful of other songbirds that joined them for a frosty feeding frenzy.

American Robins consuming Common Winterberry fruits.

American Robin in a "Hollywood Juniper". — An American Robin in the boughs of a “Hollywood Juniper”, a cultivar of the Chinese Juniper (Juniperus chinensis ‘Torulosa’, also known as J. c. ‘Kaizuka’).

A Carolina Chickadee preparing to pluck a sunflower seed from a tube feeder.

American Robins feeding on "Hollywood Juniper" berries. — American Robins feeding on “Hollywood Juniper” berries.

One of two Red-breasted Nuthatches spending the week at susquehannawildlife.net headquarters.

Eastern Bluebird. American Robin, and Tufted Titmouse. — A male Eastern Bluebird among the crowd in the garden’s trees.

An American Robin and Common Winterberry, a native deciduous holly.

A Carolina Wren investigates a tree cavity, a potential nest site. — A Carolina Wren investigates a tree cavity, a potential nest site in coming weeks.

December 25, 2022December 25, 2022

Photo of the Day

November 9, 2022November 9, 2022

Nocturnal Migrants in Moonlight

Happening right now, in the bright moonlight on a crisp autumn night, there is a massive movement of nocturnally migrating birds indicated on National Weather Service Radar from State College, Pennsylvania. Notice the dense wave crossing the lower Susquehanna River watershed from northeast to southwest. The coming morning may reveal plenty of new arrivals after daybreak. Look for robins, native sparrows, etc.

January 29, 2022August 15, 2022

Five Best Values for Feeding Birds

Despite being located in an urbanized downtown setting, blustery weather in recent days has inspired a wonderful variety of small birds to visit the garden here at the susquehannawildlife.net headquarters to feed and refresh. For those among you who may enjoy an opportunity to see an interesting variety of native birds living around your place, we’ve assembled a list of our five favorite foods for wild birds.

American Goldfinches in drab winter (basic) plumage visit the trickle of water entering the headquarters pond to bathe and drink. In addition to offering the foods animals need to survive, a source of clean water is an excellent way to attract wildlife to your property.

The selections on our list are foods that provide supplemental nutrition and/or energy for indigenous species, mostly songbirds, without sustaining your neighborhood’s non-native European Starlings and House Sparrows, mooching Eastern Gray Squirrels, or flock of ecologically destructive hand-fed waterfowl. We’ve included foods that aren’t necessarily the cheapest but are instead those that are the best value when offered properly.

Bread, “bargain” seed mixes, and cracked corn can attract and sustain large numbers of House Sparrows and European Starlings. Both are non-native species that compete mercilessly with indigenous birds including bluebirds for food and nesting sites. Though found favorable for feeding Northern Cardinals without attracting squirrels, the expensive safflower seed seen here is another favorite of these aggressive House Sparrows. Ever wasteful, they “shovel” seed out of feeders while searching for the prime morsels from which they can easily remove the hulls. Trying not to feed them is an ongoing challenge, so we don’t offer these aforementioned foods to our avian guests.

Number 5

Raw Beef Suet

In addition to rendered beef suet, manufactured suet cakes usually contain seeds, cracked corn, peanuts, and other ingredients that attract European Starlings, House Sparrows, and squirrels to the feeder, often excluding woodpeckers and other native species from the fare. Instead, we provide raw beef suet.

Because it is unrendered and can turn rancid, raw beef suet is strictly a food to be offered in cold weather. It is a favorite of woodpeckers, nuthatches, and many other species. Ask for it at your local meat counter, where it is generally inexpensive.

Raw beef suet is fat removed from areas surrounding the kidneys on a beef steer. To avoid spoiling, offer it only in the winter months, particularly if birds are slow to consume the amount placed for them. If temperatures are above freezing, it’s important to replace uneaten food frequently. The piece seen here on the left was stored in the freezer for almost a year while the rancid piece to the right was stored in a refrigerator at about 40 degrees Fahrenheit for just two months. You can render raw beef suet and make your own cakes by melting it down and pouring it into a form such as cupcake tin. But do it outdoors or you’ll be living alone for a while.

A female Downy Woodpecker feeds on raw beef suet stuffed into holes drilled into a vertically hanging log. Because they can’t be cleaned, log feeders should be discarded after one season. Wire cage feeders though, can usually be scrubbed, disinfected, dried, and reused.

Pesky European Starlings might visit a raw beef suet feeder but won’t usually linger unless other foods to their liking are available nearby.

This male Downy Woodpecker has no trouble feeding on raw beef suet packed into holes drilled into the underside of this horizontally hanging log. Starlings don’t particularly care to feed this way.

Unusual visitors like a Brown Creeper are more likely to stop by at a suet feeder when it isn’t crowded by raucous starlings, House Sparrows, and squirrels. This one surprised us just this morning.

Below the feeders, scraps of suet that fall to the ground are readily picked up, usually by ground-feeding birds. In this instance, a male Eastern Bluebird saw a chunk break loose and pounced on it with haste.

Number 4

Niger (“Thistle”) Seed

Niger seed, also known as nyjer or nyger, is derived from the sunflower-like plant Guizotia abyssinica, a native of Ethiopia. By the pound, niger seed is usually the most expensive of the bird seeds regularly sold in retail outlets. Nevertheless, it is a good value when offered in a tube or wire mesh feeder that prevents House Sparrows and other species from quickly “shoveling” it to the ground. European starlings and squirrels don’t bother with niger seed at all.

Niger seed must be kept dry. Mold will quickly make niger seed inedible if it gets wet, so avoid using “thistle socks” as feeders. A dome or other protective covering above a tube or wire mesh feeder reduces the frequency with which feeders must be cleaned and moist seed discarded. Remember, keep it fresh and keep it dry!

Niger (“thistle”) seed is very small, so it is offered in specialized feeders to prevent seed from spilling out of oversize holes as waste.

An American Goldfinch in winter plumage feeding on niger seed from a wire mesh feeder. By April, goldfinches are molting into spectacular breeding feathers. Niger seed can be offered year-round to keep them visiting your garden while they are at maximum magnificence.

American Goldfinches in August. This tube feeder is designed specifically for goldfinches, birds that have no difficulty hanging upside down to grab niger seed from small feeding ports.

During invasion years, visiting Pine Siskins favor niger seed at feeding stations.

Like goldfinches, Pine Siskins are quite comfortable feeding upside down on specialized tubes with perches positioned above the seed ports. Seeds dropped to the ground are readily picked up by ground-feeding birds including Mourning Doves and Dark-eyed Juncos. Periodically, uneaten niger seed should be swept up and discarded.

Number 3

Striped Sunflower Seed

Striped sunflower seed, also known as grey-striped sunflower seed, is harvested from a cultivar of the Common Sunflower (Helianthus annuus), the same tall garden plant with a massive bloom that you grew as a kid. The Common Sunflower is indigenous to areas west of the Mississippi River and its seeds are readily eaten by many native species of birds including jays, finches, and grosbeaks. The husks are harder to crack than those of black oil sunflower seed, so House Sparrows consume less, particularly when it is offered in a feeder that prevents “shoveling”. For obvious reasons, a squirrel-proof or squirrel-resistant feeder should be used for striped sunflower seed.

A male House Finch and a Carolina Chickadee pluck striped sunflower seeds from a squirrel-resistant powder-coated metal-mesh tube feeder.

An American Goldfinch in winter plumage finds striped sunflower seeds irresistible, even with niger seed being offered in an adjacent feeder.

A Tufted Titmouse visits a feeder stocked with striped sunflower seeds.

Northern Cardinals readily feed on striped sunflower seeds, especially those that fall from our metal-mesh tube feeders.

An Eastern Gray Squirrel (*Sciurus carolinensis*) has no choice but to be satisfied with striped sunflower seeds that spill from our wire-mesh tube feeders.

Number 2

Mealworms

Mealworms are the commercially produced larvae of the beetle Tenebrio molitor. Dried or live mealworms are a marvelous supplement to the diets of numerous birds that might not otherwise visit your garden. Woodpeckers, titmice, wrens, mockingbirds, warblers, and bluebirds are among the species savoring protein-rich mealworms. The trick is to offer them without European Starlings noticing or having access to them because European Starlings you see, go crazy over a meal of mealworms.

A male Eastern Bluebird tossing and grabbing a dried mealworm.

A female Eastern Bluebird with a dried mealworm.

A pair of Eastern Bluebirds. The value of mealworms is self-evident: you get to have bluebirds around.

To foil European Starlings, we assembled this homemade mealworm feeder from miscellaneous parts. The bluebirds took right to it.

It frustrates the starlings enough to discourage them from sticking around for long.

If you’re offering dried mealworms, a source of clean water must be available nearby so that the bluebirds and other guests at your feeder don’t become dehydrated.

Number 1

Food-producing Native Shrubs and Trees

The best value for feeding birds and other wildlife in your garden is to plant food-producing native plants, particularly shrubs and trees. After an initial investment, they can provide food, cover, and roosting sites year after year. In addition, you’ll have a more complete food chain on a property populated by native plants and all the associated life forms they support (insects, spiders, etc.).

In your garden, a Northern Mockingbird may defend a food supply like these Common Winterberry fruits as its sole means of sustenance for an entire winter season. Having an abundance of plantings assures that in your cache there’s plenty to eat for this and other species.

The American Goldfinches currently spending the winter at our headquarters are visiting the feeders for niger and striped sunflower seeds, but the bulk of their diet consists of tiny seeds from the cones on our Eastern Hemlock trees. At night, birds obtain shelter from the weather by roosting in this clump of evergreens.

While the Eastern Bluebirds visiting the susquehannawildlife.net headquarters are fond of mealworms, the bulk of their diet here consists of these Common Winterberry fruits and the berries on our American Holly trees.

Cedar Waxwings are readily attracted to red berries including Common Winterberry fruit.

Migrating American Robins visit the headquarters garden in late winter each year to devour berries before continuing their journey to the north.

Your local County Conservation District is having its annual spring tree sale soon. They have a wide selection to choose from each year and the plants are inexpensive. They offer everything from evergreens and oaks to grasses and flowers. You can afford to scrap the lawn and revegetate your whole property at these prices—no kidding, we did it. You need to preorder for pickup in the spring. To order, check their websites now or give them a call. These food-producing native shrubs and trees are by far the best bird feeding value that you’re likely to find, so don’t let this year’s sales pass you by!

January 21, 2022August 15, 2022

Photo of the Day

Swamp Sparrows can be found year-round in the Lower Susquehanna River Watershed. They seldom occur far from water, this one spending its time in a dense stand of Common Cattails (Typha latifolia).

January 20, 2022

Category: Sparrows (Passerellidae)

Photo of the Day

The Guiding Light

Back in the Day: Down on the Farm

Nest Builders at Work

Fresh Foliage and Plumes

Wildlife in the Burn Zone

Winter Survival: Generalists and Specialists

Seven Reasons to Visit Middle Creek’s Willow Point Right Now

Purple Finch Irruption?

Five Favorite Visitors from the Northern Forests

Things to See While You’re Leaf Peeping

A Prescribed Fire Site After the Burn

Photo of the Day

More Migrating Birds

A Pre-dawn Thunderstorm and a Fallout of Migrating Birds

Photo of the Day

Prescribed Fire: Controlled Burns for Forest and Non-forest Habitats

Snow Geese, Bald Eagles, and More at Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area

Birds Beginning to Wander

The Fog of a January Thaw

Birds Along the River’s Edge

Birds of Snow-covered Farmland

Birds of the Sunny Grasslands

Photos of a Visiting Cooper’s Hawk

Time to Eat

Sparrows in the Thicket

Some Good Reasons to Postpone Mowing Until Mid-August

Berries and More on a Bitter Cold Morning

Photo of the Day

Nocturnal Migrants in Moonlight

Five Best Values for Feeding Birds

Photo of the Day

Photo of the Day